世界のファスナー市場 : 2029年までの予測

出版：Daedal Research (デダルリサーチ)　出版年月：2024年3月

Global Fasteners Market

世界のファスナー市場 : 種類（ナット、ボルト、ネジ、釘、その他）、製品（おねじ、非ねじ、めねじ、航空宇宙グレード）、材質（金属、プラスチック）、用途（自動車、産業機械、航空宇宙、建築＆建設、家電製品、モーター＆ポンプ、家具、配管製品、芝生＆庭園、その他）、地域別分析、市場規模と動向 – 2029年までの予測
Global Fasteners Market: Analysis By Type (Nuts and Bolts, Screws, Nails and Others), By Product (Externally Threaded, Non-Threaded, Internally Threaded and Aerospace Grade), By Material (Metal and Plastic), By Application (Automotive, Industrial Machinery, Aerospace, Building and Construction, Home Appliances, Motors and pumps, Furniture, Plumbing products, Lawns and Gardens and Others), By Region Size & Forecast with Impact Analysis of COVID-19 and Forecast up to 2029

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Report Overview

Industrial fasteners are a large group of tools and devices used to permanently or semi-permanently join pieces together. Nuts, bolts, hinges, studs, handles, knobs, flanges, rivets, and screws are a few of these fasteners used for various mechanical applications. Fasteners deeply affect the performance and reliability of the products in which they are installed. In 2023, the global fasteners market was valued at US$89.43 billion, and is probable to reach US$116.59 billion by 2029.

2023 年の世界のファスナー市場は 894 億 3000 万米ドルと評価され、2029 年までに 1,165 億 9000 万米ドルに達すると予想されます。

Demand for components used in the manufacturing of railway infrastructure, including railroad fasteners, is expected to rise significantly in the near future. Furthermore, technological advancements and innovations also influence the industrial fasteners market Also, the focus on sustainability and environmental considerations is impacting the fasteners market. There is a growing demand for eco-friendly and recyclable fasteners. Companies that align with these environmental trends may see increased opportunities for growth. Hence, leading to the growth of global fasteners market in the future. Additionally, high-quality fasteners that are resistant to corrosion and other natural abrasions are required to meet the growing demand for railway tracks. These factors are expected to boost the industrial fasteners market during the forecast period. The global fasteners market value is projected to grow at a CAGR of 4.52%, during the forecast period of 2024-2029.

Market Segmentation Analysis:

By Type: According to the report, the global fasteners market is segmented into four types: Nuts and Bolts, Screws, Nails and Others. Nuts and Bolts segment acquired majority of share in the market in 2023, as owing to their availability and a wide scope of application. These bolts and screws have a high demand in the manufacturing industry amid a secured fastening of heavy and light machine parts. Whereas, nails segment have the fastest growing CAGR in the future, owing to direct influence by the housing market, as nails are extensively used in residential construction.

By Product: According to the report, the global fasteners market is segmented into four products: Externally Threaded, Non-Threaded, Internally Threaded and Aerospace Grade. Externally Threaded segment acquired majority of share in the market in 2023, as externally threaded fasteners are used in various industries such as construction, automotive, industrial manufacturing, etc., due to the demand for such fasteners have increased over the years. Whereas, non-threaded segment have the fastest growing CAGR in the future, because Non-threaded fasteners are frequently used in maintenance, repair, and overhaul operations across various industries. As industrial machinery and infrastructure age, there is a continuous need for MRO activities, which can contribute to the sustained demand for non-threaded fasteners.

By Material: According to the report, the global fasteners market is segmented into two materials: Metal and Plastic. Metal segment acquired majority of share in the market in 2023, as the energy and power sector, including renewable energy projects and traditional power generation, relies on metal fasteners for construction and maintenance activities. As the global focus on energy diversification continues, the demand for fasteners in this sector is likely to grow. Whereas, plastic segment have the fastest growing CAGR in the future, because Metallic fillers are often used in plastic fasteners to improve the strength and stiffness of the fasteners. In this regard, the heightened demand for metals to make plastic-metal blends as raw materials for industrial fasteners, is likely to provide impetus to the world industrial fasteners market in the coming years.

By Application: According to the report, the global fasteners market is segmented into ten applications: automotive, industrial machinery, aerospace, building and construction, home appliances, motors and pumps, furniture, plumbing products, lawns and gardens and others. Automotive segment acquired majority of share in the market in 2023 and is expected to grow with the fastest CAGR, as industrial fasteners have a wide range of applications in the automotive industry for the production of vehicles and accessories, due to which the automotive sector has a major demand for industrial fasteners globally.

By Region: The report provides insight into the fasteners market based on the supply, namely Asia Pacific, Europe, North America and Rest of the World. Asia Pacific fasteners market enjoyed the highest market share in 2023, owing to the presence of domestic and international manufacturers in the machinery, components, and automobile sectors. The construction industry, particularly in China, India, Malaysia, and Thailand, is driving the need for industrial fasteners due to economic expansion and infrastructure development.

North America fasteners market is expected to grow with the fastest CAGR, as the presence of various aircraft OEMs, such as Bombardier in Canada, Textron in the US and Boeing in the US, will drive the North American market share in the future. Also, improvement in advanced manufacturing technologies accompanied by increasing spending on research & development will drive the market of industrial fasteners.

The US fasteners market is further segmented on the basis of type (nuts and bolts, screws, nails and others), product (externally threaded, non-threaded, internally threaded and aerospace grade) and material (metal and plastic).

Global Fasteners Market Dynamics:

Growth Drivers: Growing automotive industry plays a pivotal role in driving growth in the global fasteners market as fasteners play a crucial role in the automotive industry, contributing to the assembly, structural integrity, and overall functionality of vehicles. Fasteners are extensively used in assembling various components of an automobile. This includes the connection of body panels, interior components, engine parts, transmission components, and more. Further, the market is expected to increase due to expansion of construction industry, cumulative demand from aerospace industry, increasing e-commerce, technological advancements and innovations, etc.

Challenges: The market’s expansion is projected to be hampered by supply chain disruption, as they can impact various aspects of production, distribution, and overall business operations. Fastener manufacturing relies on the procurement of raw materials such as steel, aluminum, and other alloys. Supply chain disruptions can lead to shortages or delays in the delivery of these materials, affecting production schedules and increasing costs. The other challenges that fasteners market faces include lack of skilled labor availability, variations in raw material prices, etc.

Trends: One of the most distinct and pervasive trends observed in the global fasteners market is globalization and international trade. Globalization allows fastener manufacturers to expand their market reach beyond domestic borders. International trade opens up opportunities to tap into diverse customer bases, reaching industries in different regions with varying demands for fasteners. Moreover, international trade encourages the formation of strategic partnerships and collaborations between fastener manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors across borders. More trends in the market are believed to augment the growth of fasteners market during the forecasted period include, surging demand for hybrid fasteners, growing use of plastic fasteners, miniature fastener types and styles, etc.

Impact Analysis of COVID-19 and Way Forward:

The impact of COVID-19 on the fasteners market was negative. The COVID-19 pandemic had significant short-term disruptions in the market, with temporary shutdowns and supply chain challenges impacting demand and production. The pandemic also led to shifts in demand patterns, such as increased requirements for fasteners in medical equipment and a focus on hygiene and safety standards. Market trends such as automation, digitalization, and sustainability have been accelerated in the long term.

Competitive Landscape and Recent Developments:

Global fasteners market is large and highly fragmented. Market players have implemented sustainable growth techniques in the market. To strengthen their position in the market, some of the leading competitors are pursuing various growth methods such as mergers, acquisitions, collaborations, and agreements. Key players of global fasteners market are:

Parker-Hannifin Corporation
Honeywell International Inc.
DeWalt Industrial Tool Company
Penn Engineering & Manufacturing Corp.
Würth Industrie Service GmbH & Co. KG
American Fastener Technologies Corporation
AF Fasteners Ltd
Acument Global Technologies (Fontana Gruppo)
Birmingham Fastener Inc.
Extreme Bolt and Fastener
Eagle Fastener Corporation
Accurate Manufactured Products Group, Inc.
Aoyama Seisakusho Co., Ltd.
Southern Fasteners & Supply, LLC

The key players are constantly investing in strategic initiatives, such as new launches, mergers & acquisitions, introducing their products to emerging markets and more, to maintain a competitive edge in this market. For instance, in July 2023, Triangle Fastener Corporation (TFC) announced the acquisition of Connective Systems & Supply, Inc. (CSS). In particular, the company acquired the segment of CSS’s business primarily focused on fasteners for metal building, roofing, and mechanical contractors.

Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary

2. Introduction

2.1 Fasteners: An Overview
2.1.1 Advantages of Fasteners

2.2 Fasteners Segmentation: An Overview
2.2.1 Fasteners Segmentation

3. Global Market Analysis

3.1 Global Fasteners Market: An Analysis

3.1.1 Global Fasteners Market: An Overview
3.1.2 Global Fasteners Market by Value
3.1.3 Global Fasteners Market by Type (nuts and bolts, screws, nails and others)
3.1.4 Global Fasteners Market by Product (externally threaded, non-threaded, internally threaded and aerospace grade)
3.1.5 Global Fasteners Market by Material (metal and plastic)
3.1.6 Global Fasteners Market by Application (externally automotive, industrial machinery, aerospace, building and construction, home appliances, motors and pumps, furniture, plumbing products, lawns and gardens and others)
3.1.7 Global Fasteners Market by Region (Asia Pacific, North America, Europe and Rest of the World)

3.2 Global Fasteners Market: Type Analysis

3.2.1 Global Fasteners Market by Type: An Overview
3.2.2 Global Nuts and Bolts Fasteners Market by Value
3.2.3 Global Screws Fasteners Market by Value
3.2.4 Global Nails Fasteners Market by Value
3.2.5 Global Other Fasteners Market by Value

3.3 Global Fasteners Market: Product Analysis

3.3.1 Global Fasteners Market by Product: An Overview
3.3.2 Global Externally Threaded Fasteners Market by Value
3.3.3 Global Non-Threaded Fasteners Market by Value
3.3.4 Global Internally Threaded Fasteners Market by Value
3.3.5 Global Aerospace Grade Fasteners Market by Value

3.4 Global Fasteners Market: Material Analysis

3.4.1 Global Fasteners Market by Material: An Overview
3.4.2 Global Metal Fasteners Market by Value
3.4.3 Global Plastic Fasteners Market by Value

3.5 Global Fasteners Market: Application Analysis

3.5.1 Global Fasteners Market by Application: An Overview
3.5.2 Global Automotive Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.3 Global Industrial Machinery Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.4 Global Aerospace Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.5 Global Building and Construction Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.6 Global Home Appliances Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.7 Global Motors and Pumps Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.8 Global Furniture Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.9 Global Plumbing Products Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.10 Global Lawns and Gardens Fasteners Market by Value
3.5.11 Global Other Fasteners Market by Value

4. Regional Market Analysis

4.1 Asia Pacific Fasteners Market: An Analysis

4.1.1 Asia Pacific Fasteners Market: An Overview
4.1.2 Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Value
4.1.3 Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Region (China, Japan, India, South Korea and Rest of Asia Pacific)
4.1.4 China Fasteners Market by Value
4.1.5 Japan Fasteners Market by Value
4.1.6 India Fasteners Market by Value
4.1.7 South Korea Fasteners Market by Value
4.1.8 Rest of Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Value

4.2 North America Fasteners Market: An Analysis

4.2.1 North America Fasteners Market: An Overview
4.2.2 North America Fasteners Market by Value
4.2.3 North America Fasteners Market by Region (The US, Canada and Mexico)
4.2.4 The US Fasteners Market by Value
4.2.5 The US Fasteners Market by Type (nuts and bolts, screws, nails and others)
4.2.6 The US Fasteners Market Type by Value
4.2.7 The US Fasteners Market by Product (externally threaded, non-threaded, internally threaded and aerospace grade)
4.2.8 The US Fasteners Market Product by Value
4.2.9 The US Fasteners Market by Material (metal and plastic)
4.2.10 The US Fasteners Market Material by Value
4.2.11 Canada Fasteners Market by Value
4.2.12 Mexico Fasteners Market by Value

4.3 Europe Fasteners Market: An Analysis

4.3.1 Europe Fasteners Market: An Overview
4.3.2 Europe Fasteners Market by Value
4.3.3 Europe Fasteners Market by Region (Germany, France, UK, Italy, Spain and Rest of Europe)
4.3.4 Germany Fasteners Market by Value
4.3.5 France Fasteners Market by Value
4.3.6 UK Fasteners Market by Value
4.3.7 Italy Fasteners Market by Value
4.3.8 Spain Fasteners Market by Value
4.3.9 Rest of Europe Fasteners Market by Value

4.4 Rest of the World Fasteners Market: An Analysis

4.4.1 Rest of the World Fasteners Market: An Overview
4.4.2 Rest of the World Fasteners Market by Value

5. Impact of COVID-19

5.1 Impact of COVID-19

5.1.1 Impact of COVID-19 on Fasteners Market
5.1.2 Post COVID-19 Impact

6. Market Dynamics

6.1 Growth Drivers
6.1.1 Growing Automotive Industry
6.1.2 Expansion of Construction Industry
6.1.3 Increasing E-commerce
6.1.4 Cumulative Demand from Aerospace Industry
6.1.5 Technological Advancements and Innovations

6.2 Challenges
6.2.1 Supply Chain Disruption
6.2.2 Lack of Skilled Labor Availability
6.2.3 Variations in Raw Material Prices

6.3 Market Trends
6.3.1 Globalization and International Trade
6.3.2 Surging Demand for Hybrid Fasteners
6.3.3 Growing Use of Plastic Fasteners
6.3.4 Miniature Fastener Types and Styles

7. Competitive Landscape

7.1 Global Fasteners Market Players: Company Description
7.2 Global Fasteners Market Players: Product Portfolio Comparison
7.3 Global Fasteners Market Players: Industry Development

8. Company Profiles

8.1 Parker-Hannifin Corporation
8.1.1 Business Overview
8.1.2 Operating Segments
8.1.3 Business Strategy

8.2 Honeywell International Inc.
8.2.1 Business Overview
8.2.2 Operating Segments
8.2.3 Business Strategy

8.3 DeWalt Industrial Tool Company
8.3.1 Business Overview
8.3.2 Business Strategy

8.4 Penn Engineering & Manufacturing Corp.
8.4.1 Business Overview
8.4.2 Business Strategy

8.5 Würth Industrie Service GmbH & Co. KG
8.5.1 Business Overview
8.5.2 Business Strategy

8.6 American Fastener Technologies Corporation
8.6.1 Business Overview

8.7 AF Fasteners Ltd
8.7.1 Business Overview

8.8 Acument Global Technologies (Fontana Gruppo)
8.8.1 Business Overview

8.9 Birmingham Fastener Inc.
8.9.1 Business Overview

8.10 Extreme Bolt and Fastener
8.10.1 Business Overview

8.11 Eagle Fastener Corporation
8.11.1 Business Overview

8.12 Accurate Manufactured Products Group, Inc.
8.12.1 Business Overview

8.13 Aoyama Seisakusho Co., Ltd.
8.13.1 Business Overview

8.14 Southern Fasteners & Supply, LLC
8.14.1 Business Overview

List of Figures

Figure 1: Advantages of Fasteners
Figure 2: Fasteners Segmentation
Figure 3: Global Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 4: Global Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 5: Global Fasteners Market by Type; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 6: Global Fasteners Market by Product; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 7: Global Fasteners Market by Material; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 8: Global Fasteners Market by Application; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 9: Global Fasteners Market by Region; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 10: Global Nuts and Bolts Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 11: Global Nuts and Bolts Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 12: Global Screws Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 13: Global Screws Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 14: Global Nails Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 15: Global Nails Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 16: Global Other Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 17: Global Other Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 18: Global Externally Threaded Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 19: Global Externally Threaded Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 20: Global Non-Threaded Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 21: Global Non-Threaded Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 22: Global Internally Threaded Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 23: Global Internally Threaded Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 24: Global Aerospace Grade Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 25: Global Aerospace Grade Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 26: Global Metal Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 27: Global Metal Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 28: Global Plastic Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 29: Global Plastic Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 30: Global Automotive Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 31: Global Automotive Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 32: Global Industrial Machinery Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 33: Global Industrial Machinery Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 34: Global Aerospace Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 35: Global Aerospace Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 36: Global Building and Construction Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 37: Global Building and Construction Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 38: Global Home Appliances Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 39: Global Home Appliances Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 40: Global Motors and Pumps Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 41: Global Motors and Pumps Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 42: Global Furniture Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 43: Global Furniture Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 44: Global Plumbing Products Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 45: Global Plumbing Products Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 46: Global Lawns and Gardens Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 47: Global Lawns and Gardens Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 48: Global Other Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 49: Global Other Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 50: Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 51: Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 52: Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Region; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 53: China Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 54: China Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 55: Japan Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 56: Japan Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 57: India Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 58: India Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 59: South Korea Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 60: South Korea Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 61: Rest of Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 62: Rest of Asia Pacific Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 63: North America Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 64: North America Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 65: North America Fasteners Market by Region; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 66: The US Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 67: The US Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 68: The US Fasteners Market by Type; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 69: The US Fasteners Market Type by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 70: The US Fasteners Market Type by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 71: The US Fasteners Market by Product; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 72: The US Fasteners Market Product by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 73: The US Fasteners Market Product by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 74: The US Fasteners Market by Material; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 75: The US Fasteners Market Material by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 76: The US Fasteners Market Material by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 77: Canada Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 78: Canada Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 79: Mexico Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 80: Mexico Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 81: Europe Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 82: Europe Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 83: Europe Fasteners Market by Region; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 84: Germany Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 85: Germany Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 86: France Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 87: France Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 88: UK Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 89: UK Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 90: Italy Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 91: Italy Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 92: Spain Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 93: Spain Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 94: Rest of Europe Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 95: Rest of Europe Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 96: Rest of the World Fasteners Market by Value; 2019-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 97: Rest of the World Fasteners Market by Value; 2024-2029 (US$ Billion)
Figure 98: Global Vehicle Production; 2021-2022 (Million)
Figure 99: The US Construction Spending; August 2023- December 2023 (US$ Million)
Figure 100: Global Retail E-commerce Sales; 2021-2026 (US$ Trillion)
Figure 101: Global Airline Industry Market; 2018-2023 (US$ Billion)
Figure 102: Parker-Hannifin Corporation Net Sales by Segment; 2023 (Percentage, %)
Figure 103: Honeywell International Inc. Net Sales by Segment; 2022 (Percentage, %)
Table 1: Global Fasteners Market Players: Product Portfolio Comparison